Mapping Behavioural Landscapes of Fear in Agroecosystems and Impact on Agricultural Sustainability

Abstract

Agroecosystems are multifaceted socio-ecological systems in the interaction of wildlife, humans, and
agricultural activities, which determine spatial and temporal risk perception landscapes, called
landscapes of fear. This paper set out to map behavioural terrains of fear in agroecosystems and
evaluate their relevance to the sustainability of agriculture. In particular, it assessed spatial
distributions of natural and human-induced risk factors, measured animal behavior responses, and
interconnected fear-mediated behavior with the outcomes of ecosystem services. The experiment had
been performed in mixed-use landscapes that included intensive croplands, pastures, hedges, and
remnant vegetation. Camera traps, direct observations, and GPS telemetry were used to collect
behavioral observations of herbivores, omnivores, and insectivorous species. Risk factors such as
predator distribution, the anisotropy of the environment, the level of human activity, the concentration
of infrastructure, as well as the exposure to pesticides, were standardized and spatially interpolated to
create continuum risk surfaces. The Landscape of Fear Index (LoFI) was calculated by integrating
behavioral responses, and relationships with sustainability indicators (crop damage, pest suppression,
pollination, and yield variability) were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs),
spatial regression, and multivariate analyses (PCA/RDA). Findings showed that there was a significant
level of spatial heterogeneity of perceived risk. The highest LoFI was observed in intensive croplands
(0.78 ± 0.14), and the lowest in remnant vegetation (0.22 ± 0.06), indicating the perceived threat in
the human dominion area. Behavioral response was related to risk gradients, with a lower frequency
of visitation, foraging time, and higher vigilance and avoidance in high-risk zones. GLMM analyses
indicated a negative relationship between crop damage and LoFI (β = −0.63, p < 0.001), pest
suppressive activity (β = 0.41, p < 0.001), and pollination activity (β = 0.27, p = 0.001) was maximal
at intermediate levels of fear. Multivariate analyses confirmed anthropogenic pressures, and LoFI
explained substantial variance in behavioral and ecosystem service metrics.