Behavioral Responses of Carnivores to Human Disturbance in Ecotourism Zones with Implications for Management and Policy

Abstract

Ecotourism is known to be a sustainable approach to conservation; however, as more people enter the protected landscape, the behavior of carnivores and their use of the landscape can change. This study evaluated behavioral reactions of carnivores to anthropogenic disturbance in each of the ecotourism zones based on camera trap records readily available in the Wildlife Insights database. The total independent detections were analyzed for 12,684 detections of five carnivore species over low, moderate, and high disturbance sites. Intensity of human disturbance was measured by proportion of detection per trap night; behavioral responses were assessed by temporal overlap analysis, occupancy modeling, and generalized linear mixed models. The results showed that there was a significant decrease in carnivore occupancy as disturbance level increased (p < 0.05), decreasing from 76.9% in low-disturbance areas to 46.8% in high-disturbance areas. The temporal overlap coefficients decreased by 38%, indicating a rise in nocturnal displacement with greater tourism pressures. The avoidance response was stronger in the case of large carnivores as compared to the mesocarnivores, with a leopard occupancy drop of 40.1% observed across the disturbance gradient. Human detection rate was the most important determinant of behavioral change (β = −0.63, p < 0.01), with habitat and seasonal effects being less significant. These results show that disturbance caused by ecotourism has a significant effect on carnivore activity and space use. The study highlights the importance of an adaptive approach to managing visitors, disturbance-sensitive zoning, and long-term behavioral monitoring to keep ecotourism in line with conservation goals for carnivores.